Transformational leadership: Part 2

In addition to the full model of leadership discussed in the previous blog, two other influential views of transformational leadership are worth discussing.

Bennis and Nanus (1985)

According to this approach, becoming a transformational leader begins with a deep understanding and acceptance of one's strengths and weaknesses. Transformational leaders then focus on their strengths in positive ways, which fueled by their inherent sense of self-worth, inspires confidence in their followers. Transformational leaders also have a clear vision for their organization, believe in participatory decision making, and focus on social change in their organizations (are "social architects").  By ensuring that their actions and behaviors are always consistent with their vision, they foster a sense  of trust in their organizations. There is a strong moral thread that runs through a transformational leadership style, because it originates from the deeply held values of the leader. Transformational leaders are continually learning, and encourage their followers to develop this passion for personal growth.

Kouzes and Posner (2012)

 

In their best selling book "The Leadership Challenge" (which celebrated its 25th anniversary in 2012), Kouzes and Posner create a model of leadership based on their extensive interviews with over a 1000 middle and senior level managers. Transformational leaders practice the following five principles

1. Leading by example (modeling the way)
2. Inspire a shared vision which is vivid and serves as a guide for action to the followers
3.  Challenge the process (not being complacent, constantly learning)
4. Enable others to act ( believe in teams, collaboration and delegation)
5. Encourage the heart ( believe in relationships and positive reaffirmation of followers)

Based on these five practices they also identify certain commitments that leaders must make. These include clarifying values, fostering collaboration, taking risks etc.

The most important quality that followers look for in their leaders is "credibility" which in turn comprises of honesty, being forward looking, competence and the ability to inspire. The appeal of this approach, which perhaps explains the enduring success of their book is that leadership is considered to be a practice, rather than a personality trait.

Kouzes and Posner discuss their book here.  



References

Bennis, W.G., & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: The strategies for taking charge. New York: Harper & Row

Kouzes, J.M., & Posner, B.Z. (2012). The Leadership challenge (5th edition). San Franciso: Jossey-Bass

Northouse. P.G. (2013). Leadership (sixth edition). Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications Inc.       

Picture credit (Kouzes and Posner) 
Bennis and Nanus book

Obama's vision for America's leadership examined

President Obama's commencement address  to the graduating 2014 class at West Point is generating  much debate because it lays out his vision for America's global leadership. Predictably, the responses to it were along party lines with the Republicans dismissing the speech as rhetoric. However, his speech received mixed reactions even from the press.

Obama's West Point speech offers an interesting example to examine his vision using the theories of leadership. Of course, there is a caveat - we are only analyzing his speech- and not his actions that will follow. Nevertheless, examining the speech along with its critique can be insightful in understanding how effective leaders should communicate their vision. 

What is a vision? According to Bennis and Nanus (1985), a leader's vision must be clear, attractive, realistic and about the believable future. The vision must however emerge from the needs of the organization, and should  belong to both the leader and the followers. Friedman echoes the views of Bennis and Nanus, and states that a vision must be compelling, vivid,  achievable, and have a not too distant time frame. In their influential book on Leadership, Kouzes and Posner (2002) also identify the ability to inspire a shared vision as an important practice of exemplary leaders. According to Kouzes and Posner, great leaders communicate vivid and compelling visions that serve as a guide for action for their followers. From the above, Obama's speech can be examined on the four criteria of clarity, vividness, achievability and a realistic time frame.

Obama starts off by making a case for America's undisputed status as a global leader because of its military power, its vibrant economy, its innovative capabilities, and its multiple alliances with other countries. America continues to attract immigrants looking for a better future, and is looked upon to intervene when basic human rights are in danger across the world. Obama also cautions against complacency  in face of competition from the rising middle class across the world, the ability of terrorists to wreck havoc due to technology.

 
The question we face, the question each of you will face, is not whether America will lead but how we will lead, not just to secure our peace and prosperity but also extend peace and prosperity around the globe.

So let me spend the rest of my time describing my vision for how the United States of America, and our military, should lead in the years to come, for you will be part of that leadership.

CLARITY: (8/10) He conveys the gist of America's future leadership in a four distinct points: use force only when US interests are directly threatened, need for shift in counter-terrorism strategy by moving away from direct action to building coalitions and training countries at risk of rising terrorism, need to strengthen international institutions like the UN to global peace, America's willingness to act of behalf of human dignity. The test for direct action was clear : We must not create more enemies than we take off the battlefield.


VIVIDNESS (8.5/10): Some memorable quotes are below.

Here’s my bottom line: America must always lead on the world stage. If we don’t, no one else will. The military that you have joined is, and always will be, the backbone of that leadership. But U.S. military action cannot be the only, or even primary, component of our leadership in every instance. Just because we have the best hammer does not mean that every problem is a nail.

We are going to deepen our investment in countries that support these peacekeeping missions because having other nations maintain order in their own neighborhoods lessens the need for us to put our own troops in harm’s way. It’s a smart investment. It’s the right way to lead. (Applause.)

I believe in American exceptionalism with every fiber of my being. But what makes us exceptional is not our ability to flout international norms and the rule of law; it is our willingness to affirm them through our actions. (Applause.)

Now, ultimately, global leadership requires us to see the world as it is, with all its danger and uncertainty. We have to be prepared for the worst, prepared for every contingency, but American leadership also requires us to see the world as it should be — a place where the aspirations of individual human beings really matters, where hopes and not just fears govern; where the truths written into our founding documents can steer the currents of history in the direction of justice. And we cannot do that without you. 

Leaving here, you carry with you the respect of your fellow citizens. You will represent a nation with history and hope on our side. Your charge now is not only to protect our country, but to do what is right and just. As your commander in chief, I know you will. May God bless you. May God bless our men and women in uniform. And may God bless the United States of America. (Cheers, applause.)

ACHIEVABILITY (5/10): Obama proposed a 5 billion counter terrorism fund for America's counter-terrorism strategy to train other countries to stand on their own feet to combat terrorism in their soil. Obama gives some vague examples here like Burma, Afghanistan. But more detail on the why and how of the five billion could have made the difference between rhetoric and vision. Discussing what he proposed to achieve in his four points during his remaining term was crucial. Post Snowden, when Americans are very concerned about their digital privacy, Obama should have made a more convincing case on how he planned to do this.



TIME FRAME: (4/10) Except for the deadline for pull out of Afghan troops by the end of this year, no other time frame was set. Since the President has a limited time in office now, it was important to not lose sight of that time frame.


Much of the criticism of his speech centers on the achievability and time frame. As noted by NPR  Obama was not able to frame the reality. As noted by the BBC, the rationale behind the five billion is not clear.  Also, it appears more of a restatement of his current policy than a vision for change.

In closing, Obama scores high on clarity and vividness, but low of achievability and the realistic time frame. Perhaps a good commencement address needs to weigh heavily on the former, but Obama will have to address the latter if his vision is to be taken seriously. Until then it will remain as a good commencement speech, rather than a proclamation of a new vision for America's leadership as Obama had hoped.

Picture 1 credit
Picture 2 credit
Picture 3 credit
Picture 4 credit
 

The inspirational Maya Angelou

The legendary poet Maya Angelou has died at 86. The web is abuzz with stories about her incredibly rich life, and her remarkable journey from a traumatized mute child to a global icon. In addition to her exceptional books and poetry, Angelou was also known for her inspirational quotes.

In a recent HBR interview  Angelou discussed her views on leadership.

A leader sees greatness in other people . He nor she cannot be much of a leader if all she sees in herself.




One of her most famous quotes, which resonates the views of transformational leadership is

I've learned that people will forget what you said, people will forget what you did, but people will never forget how you made them feel.


Another quote echoing the importance of intrinsic motivation is

Pursue the things you love doing, and then do them so well that people can't take their eyes off you.        

         Finally, a quote on success, which reflects the views of this blog.


        Success is liking yourself, liking what you do, and liking how you do it.   

                                                   R.I.P Maya Angelou.

Picture credit

          Picture 2 credit 

Transformational leadership Part 1: The four factors

Transformational leaders succeed in making their employees exceed expectations by transcending their self -interest, by operating from higher order needs like self-actualization, and by experiencing a sense of meaning in their work (Bass, 1985, 1990; Bass & Avolio, 1994). So how does transformational leadership work? The four factors of transformational leadership which forms part of the full range of leadership model (Bass & Avolio, 1994), is a widely used framework to discuss how transformational leadership works.


Factor 1: Idealized influence or charisma . This factor is considered to be the most effective form of transformational leadership. Here the leader is considered a role model, whom employees want to emulate. Transformational leaders are deeply respected and trusted by their followers because of their high moral standards and their unshakeable conviction in their vision for their organization. The influence of the leader here is primarily emotional. Nelson Mandela is one leader who comes to mind while discussing this factor.

Factor 2: Inspirational motivation. Communication is key here. Leaders inspire their followers to be a part of the shared vision for the organization, through emotional appeals to their higher natures. Leaders remind the followers of the significance of their work, and set high expectations of them, all the while encouraging them to achieve the organization's common goals.   

Factor 3: Intellectual stimulation. Problem solving is key in this factor. The leader encourages employees to develop creative and innovative ways to deal with organizational issues or to improve performance.

Factor 4: Individualized consideration. Here the focus is on personal attention to the needs of the followers. Transformational leaders act as coaches and mentors, and provide a supportive environment for employees to achieve their goals.


Transformational leaders use these four factors to achieve performance beyond expectations (Bass & Avolio, 1990).  These four factors can also be used to develop transformational leaders through training (Bass, 1990). Leaders can compare their self-rating on these four factors with those of their employees to identify discrepancies and develop improvement strategies. Alternatively, they could observe leaders they consider high scorers in these four factors, and emulate and adapt their own behaviors accordingly.

The Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ), developed by Bass (1985) is the most extensively used instrument to measure transformational leadership (Northouse, 2013). The questionnaire is designed to measure how followers perceive their leader's behavior in each factor.
.

References

Bass, B.M., & Avolio, B.J. (1994). Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Bass, B.M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.

Bass, B.M. (1990). From transactional to transformational leadership. Learning to share the vision. Organizational Dynamics, 18: 19-31.

Northouse, P.G. 2013. Leadership. Sixth edition. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage

Picture credit

Transformational leadership: Vision vs. rhetoric

Transformational leaders motivate their followers to transcend their self interests for a larger cause (Shamir et. al, 1993). Making a difference in society (social impact) is therefore the cornerstone of the vision espoused by transformational leaders (Grant, 2007; 2012). The greater sense of meaningfulness experienced by the followers positively affects their motivation and performance. However, some studies have shown that the results are not straightforward, and in some cases transformational leadership did not have a positive effect on motivation and performance.

One possible explanation for this inconsistency is that transformational leaders are sometimes unable to translate their grandiose visions into concrete terms. When their followers do not see any evidence of their prosocial impact; the transformational leader's vision appears to be more rhetorical than real (Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1996). Grant (2012) suggests that enabling employees contact with the beneficiary of their work, leads to a higher perceived sense of social impact.

Contact with the beneficiaries provides employees with a vivid imagery of the meaningfulness of their work, and their leader's vision. The transformational leader's credibility increases when employees see the relationship between their leader's rhetoric and reality. When the ambiguity about the prosocial impact of their work is reduced, employees are motivated to work harder which results in improved performance.

A results of a quasi-experiment study of call center employees and a survey of government employees (Grant, 2012) supported these hypotheses. The study also indicates that improving the social characteristics of the job can enhance the effectiveness of transformational leaders. Grant (2012) cites the example of Medtronic, the successful defibrillator manufacturing company, which provides its employees with a deep sense of meaning about their jobs, by allowing them to observe heart surgeries where their products are used.

Transformational leaders with strong prosocial visions can therefore increase both their employees' commitment to their vision, and performance by allowing them to observe the impact of their work on others.


References

Grant, A.M. (2012). Leading with meaning: Beneficiary contact, prosocial impact, and the performance effects of transformational leadership. Academy of Management Journal, 55(2): 458-476.

Grant, A.M. (2007). Relational job design and the motivation to make a prosocial difference. Academy of Management Review, 32: 393-417.

Kirkpatrick, S. A., & Locke, E. A. 1996. Direct and indirect  effects of the there core charismatic leadership components on performance and attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81: 36-51. 

                              

Shamir, B., House, R. J., & Arthur, M. B. 1993. The motivational effects of charismatic leadership: A self concept based theory. Organization Science, 4:577-594. 

Nelson Mandela's inspiration

William Ernest Henley's (1849-1903) poem "Invictus" is now inextricably linked with Nelson Mandela. The 2009 Mandela biopic named Invictus, directed by Clint Eastwood  strengthened this association. It is said that Mandela often turned to this poem for inspiration during his long and lonely years in prison. Mandela was so deeply influenced by this poem that he introduced it to not only  fellow prisoners like Eddie Daniels, but also to others after he was freed. Mandela  shared the poem with rugby star Francois Piennar during their first meeting; Piennar later famously  led South Africa to victory in the historic 1995 rugby world championships beating New Zealand in the finals.

Invictus is a powerful poem in its own right, but the story of its author, and the circumstances under which it was written makes it both poignant and tenacious at once. Henley was inflicted with  arthritic tuberculosis from childhood, and suffered from ill health for most of his life. Invictus; Latin for unconquered, is said to have been written as a defiant confrontation with fate during his hospitalization after the amputation of his leg below the knee in 1875. Henley himself was an inspiration to his contemporaries including R.L Stevenson, who supposedly credited his "maimed strength"  and masterfulness as the inspiration for Long John Silver in Treasure Island. Other eminent leaders inspired by Invictus include Myanmar's leader Aung San Suu Kyi, Theodore Roosevelt, Winston Churchill etc.


Invictus by W.E Henley

Out of the night that covers me,
Black as the pit from pole to pole,
I thank whatever gods may be
For my unconquerable soul.

In the fell clutch of circumstance
I have not winced nor cried aloud.
Under the bludgeonings of chance
My head is bloody, but unbowed.

Beyond this place of wrath and tears
Looms but the horror of the shade,
And yet the menace of the years
Finds, and shall find, me unafraid.

It matters not how strait the gate,
How charged with punishments the scroll,
I am the master of my fate:
I am the captain of my soul


 Scholars like English professor Marion Hoctor suggest that the poem is more about stoicism than inspiration. Stoics believe that a virtuous life is essential for happiness, and no external forces -even god- matter. Whatever the interpretation, Invictus is testimony to the resilience of the human spirit.

Henley picture credit
Mandela picture credit

Gandhi's favorite hymn

Prayer meetings were an integral part of Gandhi's day. These meetings served more than a spiritual purpose, by being occasions for Gandhi to interact with his followers and admirers, and more importantly - the common citizens of India. Gandhi often articulated his views on current events in these meetings, and was very particular about being on time for them.

Most prayers sung in these meetings were Hindu hymns, but the spirit rather than the letter was poignant for Gandhi. One of Gandhi's favorite hymns is considered to be the Guajarati hymn "Vaishnava janato" composed by the poet-saint Narsinh Mehta (1414-1481); a significant literary figure in Gujarati literature. The hymn describes the qualities of an ideal Vaishnavite (a follower of Lord Vishnu). Although written in Gujarati, the simple lyrics make it easy to understand for anyone with a working knowledge of Hindi (the national language of India). The hymn is set to tune in the mellifluous Indian raga Mishra Khamaj, which also explains its enduring appeal.

The English translation is below (the virtues extolled in the hymn are in italics)

Vaishnava (devotees of Lord Vishnu) people are those who,

Feel the pain of others,
Help those who are in misery,
But never let ego or conceit enter their mind.

Vaishnavas, respect the entire world, Do not censure anyone, Keep their words, actions and thoughts pure, The mother of such a soul is blessed.

Vaishnavas see all equally, renounce greed and avarice, Respects women as he respects his own mother, Their tongue might get tired, but they will never speak falsehood, Their hands would never touch the wealth of another.

Vaishnavas do not succumb to worldly attachments, They are detached from worldly pleasures, They are enticed by the name of God (Shri Ram), All holy sites of pilgrimage are embodied within them.

Vaishnavas encompasses the absence of greed and deceit, They have renounced all types of lust and anger, The author of this poem (Narsi) would be grateful to meet such a soul, By who's virtue, liberates their entire lineage.

It is easy to understand why this hymn struck a chord with Gandhi. Like any true master piece this simple hymn transcends its religious and linguistic boundaries to shine as beacon to all those who wish to lead a virtuous life. A rendition of the hymn is here.

 

Transactional leadership versus transformational leadership

The distinction between a transactional and transformational leader is an important one in leadership jargon. Transactional leaders, as the name implies, rely on some form of "exchange" with their followers to achieve the organization's goals. A transactional relationship between the leader and follower is one of mutual dependence (Kellerman, 1984), and therefore the leader must ensure that the followers' needs are being met consistently. Not all transactions are equal, and transactional relationships based on intangible exchanges like trust or emotional bonds are stronger than transactions based on tangible goods and rights (Landy, 1985). Since tangible or lower-order transactions depend on physical resources, a leader loses bargaining power when they don't have the ability to provide such resources. These transactions are therefore dependent on the leader's "position" in the organization. Higher- order transactions on the other hand continue to be in the control of the leader since they are based on intangible exchanges (Kuhnert and Lewis, 1987).  But irrespective of the quality of the transactions, the primary mode of leadership here is through exchange or quid pro quo.

Transformational leadership on the other hand arises from the core values of the leader. These are values considered non-negotiable by them under any circumstances. For example, justice could be considered one such value. Since the vision for the organization arises from the deep personal conviction of the leader, they are able to unite their followers, and even change (transform) them to achieve results beyond expectations (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978). The personal characteristics of the leader are therefore the crucial elements in transformational leadership, unlike the goods being exchanged in transactional leadership. Charisma is an important but not sufficient component of transformational leaders. Charisma involves  influencing others, but transformational leaders influence with the purpose of achieving a higher moral ground for their followers and organizations. Therefore Adolf Hitler could be considered charismatic, but not transformational.

Transformational leaders by virtue of their core values transcend their self -interests for the greater common good, and are able to influence their followers to do the same. The influence process however occurs through internal transformation of the followers rather than through coercion. The leader is also transformed in the process, and therefore the leader and followers are bound together in creating positive change. Transformational leaders may sometimes use transactional methods, but it is always as part of the larger schema, rather than as their primary form of influence.

Transformational leadership is clearly a theory in tune with the times. Its focus on the mutual transformation of the leader and follower, empowerment rather than control of followers, and intrinsic motivation than external rewards reflects the needs of today's knowledge workers and highly skilled teams. Transformational leadership thus is at the forefront of leadership research today, and will be discussed in greater depth in the following posts.    



References

Bass, B.M (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York: Free Press.

Burns, J.M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.

Kellerman, B. (1984). Leadership: Multidisciplinary perspectives. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Kuhnert, K.W., & Lewis, P. (1987). Transactional and transformational leadership: A constructive/development analysis. Academy of Management Review, 12(4): 684-657.

Landy, F.L. (1985). Psychology of work behavior. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press.

Northhouse, P.G (2013). Leadership. Sixth edition. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications, Inc.


Picture credit (transactional)
Picture credit (transformational)

Herman Hesse on what trees can teach us about life

Herman Hesse (1877-1962), the German novelist (perhaps best known for his book Siddartha), poet and painter, won the Nobel prize for literature in 1946. In 1919, after the failure of his marriage Hesse moved alone to the Ticino mountains in Switzerland where he lived in a mountain village Montagnola. He also began painting at this time. In 1920 he published the deeply meditative book "The Wanderings" as an offering to this paradise on earth, where he had  found solace. The Ode to trees is found in this volume (translated by James Wright). No further introduction is required for this profound and uplifting meditation.

For me, trees have always been the most penetrating preachers. I revere them when they live in tribes and families, in forests and groves. And even more I revere them when they stand alone.

They are like lonely persons. Not like hermits who have stolen away out of some weakness, but like great, solitary men, like Beethoven and Nietzsche. In their highest boughs the world rustles, their roots rest in infinity; but they do not lose themselves there, they struggle with all the force of their lives for one thing only: to fulfill themselves according to their own laws, to build up their own form, to represent themselves.

Nothing is holier, nothing is more exemplary than a beautiful, strong tree.

When a tree is cut down and reveals its naked death-wound to the sun, one can read its whole history in the luminous, inscribed disk of its trunk: in the rings of its years, its scars, all the struggle, all the suffering, all the sickness, all the happiness and prosperity stand truly written, the narrow years and the luxurious years, the attacks withstood, the storms endured.

And every young farmboy knows that the hardest and noblest wood has the narrowest rings, that high on the mountains and in continuing danger the most indestructible, the strongest, the ideal trees grow.

Trees are sanctuaries. Whoever knows how to speak to them, whoever knows how to listen to them, can learn the truth. They do not preach learning and precepts, they preach, undeterred by particulars, the ancient law of life.

A tree says: A kernel is hidden in me, a spark, a thought, I am life from eternal life. The attempt and the risk that the eternal mother took with me is unique, unique the form and veins of my skin, unique the smallest play of leaves in my branches and the smallest scar on my bark. I was made to form and reveal the eternal in my smallest special detail.

A tree says: My strength is trust. I know nothing about my fathers, I know nothing about the thousand children that every year spring out of me. I live out the secret of my seed to the very end, and I care for nothing else. I trust that God is in me. I trust that my labor is holy. Out of this trust I live.

When we are stricken and cannot bear our lives any longer, then a tree has something to say to us: Be still! Be still! Look at me! Life is not easy, life is not difficult. Those are childish thoughts. Let God speak within you, and your thoughts will grow silent.

You are anxious because your path leads away from mother and home. But every step and every day lead you back again to the mother. Home is neither here nor there. Home is within you, or home is nowhere at all.

A longing to wander tears my heart when I hear trees rustling in the wind at evening. If one listens to them silently for a long time, this longing reveals its kernel, its meaning. 

It is not so much a matter of escaping from one’s suffering, though it may seem to be so. It is a longing for home, for a memory of the mother, for new metaphors for life. It leads home. Every path leads homeward, every step is birth, every step is death, every grave is mother.

So the tree rustles in the evening, when we stand uneasy before our own childish thoughts: Trees have long thoughts, long-breathing and restful, just as they have longer lives than ours. They are wiser than we are, as long as we do not listen to them.

But when we have learned how to listen to trees, then the brevity and the quickness and the childlike hastiness of our thoughts achieve an incomparable joy. Whoever has learned how to listen to trees no longer wants to be a tree. He wants to be nothing except what he is.

That is home. That is happiness.


Picture credit
Picture credit (tree)
Other credits
Introduction
    

What is leadership? The evolution of leadership*

Examining how leadership has evolved over time will reveal that leadership is indeed a product of its times. The active study of leadership began in the early 1900s, and the important theories that have guided our understanding of leadership are listed below*.

1900s to 1940s (and a resurgence from 1980s to present): The trait approaches ( initially called the Great man theories). This approach to studying leadership tried to identify certain common inherent characteristics (traits) shared by great leaders of that time, in order to understand what makes some people leaders. An analysis of the major findings of research of over a century indicates that there is some general consensus about the important desirable traits in leaders. These are intelligence, self-confidence, determination, integrity and sociability (Northhouse, 2013).

It is easy to understand the appeal of trait theories because of their simplicity. However, the trait theories assume that leaders are born than made, which makes them irrelevant in developing leaders. Interestingly there has been a resurgence in the study of the traits approach, with studies focusing on the personality of leaders using the Big Five model (Goldberg, 1990). It appears that the personality of extraversion was most strongly associated with leadership, followed by conscientiousness, openness, and emotional stability.  There is also a  rising interest in the study of emotional intelligence as an important attribute of leaders. Since it is believed that emotional intelligence can be developed through reflection and practice, the leaders are "born" drawback of trait theories has diminished with these new areas of study of human traits.


1930s to 1960s (behavioral theories): The study of leader behaviors (how they behave and act)  was the next significant area of research. Some important behavioral studies are the Ohio State University and the University of Michigan studies in the 1950s and 1960s. These studies essentially found that leaders could be differentiated into task oriented versus people oriented. However, it was Blake and Mouton's 1964 study which discussed the implications of these differences in leader behaviors in an organizational setting. For example, according to Blake and Mouton, the team oriented style (also called the 9.9 style), which is considered to be most effective, is the result of leadership which is high in both task and people orientation. While these studies made significant inroads in understanding the behavioral aspect of leadership, they were still considered narrow in scope in explaining the complexities of leadership.

1960s to 2000: Situational or contingency theories: Contingency theories believe that instead of exhibiting a consistent leadership style, effective leaders should behave according to the situation. One important theory using this approach is Hershey and Blanchard's situational approach. They suggest that an effective leader uses different styles depending on "employee readiness". For example, a rookie and a veteran need different leadership styles. Another interesting theory is Fiedler's contingency theory which suggests that the effectiveness of a task oriented leader and relationship oriented leader depends on the type of situations they manage. Task oriented leaders are most effective when things are going extremely well, or when there is chaos. Relationship oriented leaders are effective when things are going moderately well. Fiedler's theory is a tad controversial because he suggests that the leadership style of a person is fixed.

1990s to present : Relational approach. One prominent theory using this approach is the leader member exchange theory (LMX) which suggests that leaders with high quality and stronger relationships are more effective. The LMX theory makes a significant departure from other theories by examining one to one relationships between the leader and the follower.

1980s to present: Transformational leadership. This approach considers leaders as those who inspire a shared vision for their organizations and bring about positive transformations. Charismatic leadership is closely related to transformational leadership, but recognizes the fact that charisma while potent could also be used for negative ends (Hitler being the most common example).

2000 to present: New emerging approaches. We are living in exciting times for leadership. The context for leadership continues to change at a rapid pace due to globalization, the rise of women in the workplace and the advent of technology. The sub-prime mortgage crisis and the wide wave of destruction it left behind in the entire world, has brought the need for ethical leadership to the forefront. Authentic Leadership is one theory generating a lot of interest due to its focus on values and moral compass of leaders. Servant leadership stresses that leaders must view themselves as servants of their followers, and strive to empower them. Spiritual leadership with its focus on meaning is another contemporary theory of leadership which is gaining ground.

This blog's focus is on the transformational and the new emerging approaches because these theories have universal appeal, and are relevant to our times. For example, a leader in any culture must have a vision, and possess the ability to influence others to share their vision. Ethical leaders are desired by all cultures, and will be particularly effective in these times where trust will have to be established first and quickly. A leader's reputation is certain to precede them today. The focus on serving employees rather than controlling them also has universal appeal.  Finally, spiritual leadership's emphasis on meaning also strikes a chord universally as people try to make sense of their place in their increasingly complex environments.

Goldberg, L.R. (1990). An alternative "description of personality": The big-five factor structure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1216-1229.

Hershey, P., & Blanchard, K. H. (1969). Life-cycle theory of leadership. Training and development journal, 23:26-34.

Northhouse, P.G (2013). Leadership. Sixth edition. California: Sage Publications Ltd.
* Northouse, P.G. (2015). Adapted from Introduction to Leadership (Concepts and Practice). California: Sage Publications Ltd.

Picture credit

Steve Jobs' iPod

Steve Jobs's love for music is well known, and many of his favorite artists like Chris Martin, Norah Jones, U2 often performed during his product launches. Walter Isaacson's biography* has an entire chapter devoted to Steve Job's musical tastes. Isaacson refers to Steven Levy's definitive book on the iPod's influence on our culture: The Perfect Thing, where among other things, Levy remarks that the our iPod playlists can strip us naked and reveal who we are - just like that- at one glance.

Bob Dylan was Steve Jobs' favorite musician - period. Unsurprisingly Dylan occupied a significant portion (six volumes of Dylan's bootleg series and fifteen other albums) of his iPod playlist. Dylan was more than a musician to Jobs; he was a revolutionary, a supreme artist, a free spirit, a visionary who didn't believe in boundaries - qualities that Jobs himself aspired to achieve.

Job's favorite Dylan song was "One too many mornings", and the normally reclusive Dylan sang it for him during one his concerts after Jobs mentioned it during his pre- concert visit.
One too many mornings was recorded in 1963, and released in 1964 as part of iconic "The times  they are-a changin'" album.

The lyrics# (below) are supposedly about a break up, without any reconciliation in sight - or in mind. Dylan reflects, regrets and then resigns himself to life.

Down the street the dogs are barkin'
And the day is a-gettin' dark
As the night comes in a-fallin'
The dogs will lose their bark

And the silent night will shatter
From the sounds inside my mind
As I'm one too many mornings
And a thousand miles behind

 

From the crossroads of my doorstep
My eyes start to fade
And I turn my head back to the room
Where my love and I have laid

And I gaze back to the street
The sidewalk and the sign
And I'm one too many mornings
And a thousand miles behind

 

It's a restless hungry feelin'
That don't mean no one no good
When everythin' I'm a-sayin'
You can say it just as good

You're right from your side
I'm right from mine
We're both just one too many mornings
And a thousand miles behind

You can listen to Dylan performing it live here in 1966


This version has superior audio (again performed in 1966)




*Steve Jobs by Walter Isaacson (2011). New York: Simon & Schuster
# http://www.metrolyrics.com/one-too-many-mornings-lyrics-bob-dylan.html
Dylan picture credit
Steve Jobs picture credit

Leadership versus Management

                              The difference between management and leadership

Leadership has been discussed from time immemorial. For example, the Indian epic Mahabharata - essentially the story of good versus bad leadership from the vantage point of kings- can be traced way back to the 8th century BC. The term management however, was used after the industrialization of society in the early 1900s. The seminal work of Frenchman Henri Fayol; “General and Industrial Management” first published in 1916, continues to be the cornerstone of Management 101. Fayol was primarily interested in improving the efficiency of organizations, and formulated certain concepts which managers could follow to manage their organizations effectively. According to Fayol the five essential functions of management are planning, organizing, command, coordination and control. He also discussed fourteen principles of management, including the chain of command (who reports to whom), centralization (where are decisions made), division of work etc. It is evident that the priority was on efficiency although to his credit, Fayol recognizes the importance of a congenial workplace, and group spirit (spirit de corps).  

One of the earlier influential articles discussing the difference between leadership and management is Zaleznik’s 1977 HBR article “Managers and Leaders: Are they different?” Here Zaleznik compares leaders to artists; they are creative, not tied to their organizations, and are forward looking. Managers on the other hand are more analytical and focused on survival or status quo, rather than on change and risk. Kotter (1990) developed this idea further and stated that leaders manage change while managers manage complexity. Leadership therefore involves having a vision, and the ability to influence others to share and achieve that vision, while management involves the use of the management functions (similar to Fayol’s) to ensure that the organization stays afloat amidst the surrounding chaos. Therefore, managers plan and budget by setting timetables, and allocating resources, while leaders create a vision and clarify the big picture and identify strategies to pursue the vision. Managers organize and staff the organization by setting rules and providing structure, while leaders focus on aligning people to their vision by building committed teams. Managers focus on controlling and problem solving, while leaders focus on motivating and inspiring (Northouse, 2013). In a recent HBR blog Kotter continues to make a case for the distinction between management and leadership. Perhaps, the most important point Kotter makes is that leadership is not about possessing certain traits like charisma as is widely thought, but about exhibiting certain important behaviors like implementing a vision, which in turn can be learnt.

The key differentiator between leadership and management therefore appears to be the focus on the “future” without losing sight of the present. There is no doubt that management and leadership are complementary and successful organizations need both. Even the supreme visionary of our times, Steve Jobs had dedicated managers (including current CEO Tim Cook as his logistics chief) to implement his vision. Perhaps the most famous quote on the management-leadership distinction is Bennis and Nanus’s (1985:221) view that “managers do things right, while leaders do the right things”. Bennis (1989) argues that in the 21^st century we need more leaders than managers, because leaders master change, while managers surrender to it (paraphrased). This might be a harsh judgment on managers, and the empirical evidence on this leadership-management distinction is limited. However, it appears that leaders rather than managers are the ones who rise to the top as the world churns. We already see smart organizations (leaders) having the foresight to focus on what they do best, and outsourcing their functions like HR to professional organizations that specialize in them. That is managing change.

On a personal level, being a leader rather than a manager involves constantly challenging oneself to improve, even when the going is good. Dr. Atul Gawande, a high performing surgeon talks about hiring another retired surgeon as a coach to help him improve his surgical skills even further. As a caveat; not everyone can be a leader, nor can everyone be a manager. Recognizing this distinction, and choosing the role which suits one best is personal leadership.   

References

Fayol, H. (1916). General and Industrial management. London: Pitman

Kotter, J.P (1990). A force for change: How leadership differs from management. New York: Free Press.

Northouse, P.G. (2013). Leadership (Theory and Practice). Sixth Edition. California: Sage Publications

Zaleznik, A. (1977). Managers and Leaders. Are they different? HBR

Gawande. A. (2011) Top athletes and singers have coaches. Should you? (October 3, New Yorker)

 

 

Narendra Modi's khichdi

As India watches its new prime minister Narendra Modi with a mixture of excitement and trepidation, several articles have surfaced detailing his lifestyle. It is impossible to check the veracity of these articles, but Modi himself discusses his simple vegetarian food habits, and his preference for "khichdi" in the following interview (in Hindi).

Thanks to Modi, the humble khichdi is a now front pager.  Khichdi*; a mushy mix of rice and lentils is a comfort food for many Indians. It's closest American counterpart would probably be the peanut butter and jelly sandwich; simple yet wholesome and satisfying. This comparison is only for clarity's sake, and must go no further. The khichdi has a long history, and can be traced back to the writings of visitors to India in the 17th century, and also figured in the Mughal lore (16th century) . Khichdi is also a recommended food in the Ayurveda diet. While the khichdi has undergone several variations over time, with spices, nuts, raisins and, vegetables finding their way into it, it's simplest -rice and lentil- version is the one worth discussing here.

Khichdi is easily digestible, uses very little spice (except salt and turmeric), and is therefore a food recommended for both invalids, and on the other end of the spectrum as the first solid food for babies. As with everything traditional, the simple exterior of khichdi conceals its innate goodness. The rice and lentil combination of the khichdi provides several essential nutrients like protein, fiber, iron, amino acids etc. making it a complete protein. Add a blob of clarified butter, and a side of yogurt and vegetables to get a wholesome meal. See the recipe below along with some serving suggestions.

An interesting article article about the various adaptations (even royal) can be found here.

*http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khichdi
picture credits